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Where Is the Best Place to Live in the European Union? A Synthetic Assessment of External Residential Environmental Quality from a Sustainability Perspective by Degree of Urbanisation
The contemporary approach to assessing the housing conditions of households requires taking into account not only the physical characteristics of dwellings but also the quality of their surroundings. From a sustainability perspective, the quality of the external residential environment constitutes a key dimension of sustainable living conditions, closely linked to environmental well-being, spatial equity, and the objectives of sustainable urban and territorial development in the European Union (EU). Despite the growing awareness of the importance of the living environment for residents’ well-being, this issue remains insufficiently represented in analyses addressing the territorial variations in household housing conditions in the EU countries. The scientific literature reveals a lack of comprehensive comparative studies that would link subjective assessments of external residential environmental quality with the level of urbanisation, enabling a more complete evaluation of the living environment and its spatial variability. The aim of the study was therefore to assess the perceived external residential environmental quality of households in EU countries, taking into account the level of urbanisation—differences between urban, town, and rural areas. The study aimed to test the hypothesis that “The external residential environmental quality in EU countries significantly varies depending on the level of urbanisation and regional affiliation, with the highest quality observed in rural areas, particularly in Western European countries.” The study was conducted based on data from the Eurostat database, which were processed using descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and taxonomic methods. The results of the study confirmed that the external residential environmental quality of households in EU countries significantly differs depending on the level of urbanisation and regional affiliation. The highest level of residential environment quality for households is observed in rural areas of Northern and Eastern European countries. The greatest challenges occur in large cities, particularly in Western Europe, indicating the need to intensify efforts to improve the quality of the living environment in these areas.
Powiązania funkcjonalne gmin wiejskich z ośrodkami miejskimi a ich potencjał dochodowy i inwestycyjny w kontekście inwestycji w transformację niskoemisyjną w Polsce
The aim of this article is to assess whether the functional location of rural municipalities in relation to urban centres is associated with differences in their activity in acquiring low-carbon projects co-financed by EU funds. In addition, the study identifies financial factors (revenue and investment potential) that co-occur with this activity in rural municipalities located within Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) and outside them. The study covered rural municipalities analysed according to their membership in Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) and macroregions. The analysis was based on data from Statistics Poland, the Ministry of Finance, and the Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy. Descriptive statistics and classification tree methods were applied. The results indicate that FUA membership is associated with differences in the revenue potential of rural municipalities, whereas its relationship with investment potential is ambiguous and depends on macroregional conditions. This differentiation is reflected in municipalities’ activity in implementing low-carbon projects. Municipalities belonging to FUAs participate in such projects more frequently and achieve higher financial intensity of investments per capita and per km, although the scale of this effect varies across macroregions. The classification tree analysis also shows that the configuration of financial factors co-occurring with the analysed investment activity differs depending on functional location. In municipalities belonging to FUAs, structural and development-related indicators are of greater importance, whereas in municipalities outside FUAs the key role is played by current financial condition, particularly the ability to generate an operating surplus.
Czy funkcjonalna bliskość miasta sprzyja transformacji energetycznej? Inwestycje gmin w gospodarkę niskoemisyjną w kontekście powiązań z ośrodkami miejskimi
Gminy odgrywają istotną rolę w transformacji energetycznej, realizując inwestycje wspierające rozwój gospodarki niskoemisyjnej. Ich aktywność w tym zakresie cechuje się jednak zróżnicowaniem przestrzennym, m.in. ze względu na bliskość dużych miast. Głównym celem badań była ocena zależności między funkcjonalnym powiązaniem gmin wiejskich i miejsko-wiejskich z większymi ośrodkami miejskimi a poziomem inwestycji w gospodarkę niskoemisyjną, współfinansowanych ze środków Unii Europejskiej w latach 2007–2013 oraz 2014–2020. Badania empiryczne przeprowadzono w celu weryfikacji hipotezy zakładającej, że „gminy funkcjonalnie powiązane z dużymi ośrodkami miejskimi (położone w granicach FUA) wykazują wyższy poziom inwestycji w rozwój gospodarki niskoemisyjnej niż gminy znajdujące się poza tymi obszarami”. Wyniki wskazują na wzrost analizowanej aktywności inwestycyjnej, szczególnie w gminach aglomeracyjnych o niskiej gęstości zaludnienia. Hipoteza badawcza została częściowo potwierdzona – powiązania z miastami sprzyjają wyższym inwestycjom w gospodarkę niskoemisyjną w ujęciu przestrzennym, jednak nie zawsze przekładają się na większe nakłady w przeliczeniu na mieszkańca.
Energy independent cities? Investment activity of cities in the implementation of EU co-financed projects in renewable energy sources and its conditions in Poland
Aim: The main objective of the paper is to evaluate the scale, scope, and significance of investments in renewable energy sources by cities in Poland, which were co-financed from EU funds. This assessment will focus on the last two multiannual financial frameworks, namely for the years 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. Methods: Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the database of the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the Ministry of Finance. When investigating the investment activity of towns and cities related to renewable energy sources, basic descriptive statistics methods were applied. Logistic regression was used to identify the primary socio-economic, financial, and environmental conditions. Results: In the analyzed period, the role of towns and cities in the realization of renewable energy projects increased, although it is still relatively limited compared to other types of administrative communes. In the multiannual financial framework for 2007–2013, less than one in ten cities executed at least one project, while in the years 2014–2020, more than one in four cities realized at least one project related to the development of renewable energy sources supported by EU funds. The disparity in activity between towns and cities on a regional scale was huge. These investments were more often realized by towns and cities with a lower level of development, serving tourist functions, and experienced in carrying out such investments. Their lower investment activity was influenced by their level of indebtedness. Conclusions: So far, one of the main drivers behind the development of renewable energy in urban areas has been the ecological aspect, particularly the improvement of air quality. However, there is now a growing recognition of the importance of energy security.
The Role of Large Cities in the Development of Low-Carbon Economy - The Example of Poland
The main objective of the article is to evaluate the investment activity of large cities in Poland in the area of developing a low-carbon economy in 2014–2020, co-financed by European Union funds. This article poses several research questions, namely: Do large cities with environmental problems actively obtain EU funding to develop a low-carbon economy? What are the main socio-economic and environmental determinants of the level of the EU funding absorption among large cities in the research area? The empirical research was conducted on the basis of the data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, which is responsible for the implementation of cohesion policy funds and from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland. Under the 2014–2020 perspective, 223 such projects have been implemented for a total of PLN 21 billion (EUR 4.74 billion). The projects focused on: transportation, electricity, gaseous fuels, steam, hot water and air for air conditioning systems, and environmental and climate change activities. In terms of both the number and the value of EU funds spent, great variation has been observed. Analysis of the correlation relationships showed a highly positive correlation between selected indicators of investment activity in the field of low-carbon economy co-financed by EU funds (especially taking into account the value of investments per area) and socio-economic indicators of Polish metropolises. Metropolises with high demographic, economic, and financial potential have proven to be more effective beneficiaries. Interestingly, no correlation was found between investment activity in the low-carbon economy and the level of environment pollution in large cities. This means that, unfortunately, pro-environmental activities depend on the state of finances of the cities, and not necessarily on the actual needs, even taking into account the fact that the EU covers a large proportion of the costs.
Autonomia finansowa małych miast w Polsce
The main aim of the study was to assess the level, dynamics of changes and diversification of the financial autonomy of small towns with the status of urban communes in Poland in 2011 and 2020. Two basic indicators used in the assessment of the studied phenomenon were used: the level of own income per capita, as well as and their share in the own income of the surveyed entities. The subjective scope of the research included small towns (less than 20 thousand inhabitants) with the status of urban communes (116 entities in 2020). Empirical research was carried out on the basis of secondary data from the Central Statistical Office. The empirical research conducted was aimed at answering the following research questions: is the distance between small towns and larger urban centers in terms of the level of financial autonomy high and increasing over the years, does the lowest level of financial autonomy distinguish small cities from the Eastern Macroregion, what are the most important determinants of the level of financial autonomy of small towns. The conducted research has shown that small towns are characterized by the lowest level of financial autonomy, but also the highest diversity in this respect. However, disproportions in the level of financial autonomy of small towns in relation to urban communes in general are relatively small and have decreased in the analyzed period. The highest level of the studied phenomenon is observed in small towns from the Northern and Southern Macroregions, and the lowest in the Eastern Macroregion. Disproportions in the financial autonomy of small towns in the Eastern Macroregion in relation to, among others, to small towns in Poland in general, however, decreased. However, the financial autonomy of these entities is still the result of local entrepreneurship, conditions for the development of tourism and location benefits.
Are most polluted regions most active in energy transition processes? A case study of polish regions acquiring EU funds for local investments in renewable energy sources
The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that “the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions”. Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development.
Regional diversity of low-carbon investment support from EU funds in the 2014–2020 financial perspective based on the example of Polish municipalities
Do regions with high CO2 emissions actively invest in energy transition? – examples of local investments in Poland
Investments in Renewable Energy in Rural Communes: An Analysis of Regional Disparities in Poland
Although energy transformation is a widely discussed topic, there is a dearth of research on the role of rural communes in implementing that concept in Poland, a country where rural areas account for more than 90% of the total landmass. Most research projects are focused on larger local government units, such as cities, whereas rural communes’ role in the development of local energy policies and impact on the development of renewable energy sources (RESs) is often disregarded. Therefore, this study extends the existing literature resources with a view to bridging that gap by assessing rural communes’ investment activity in the context of the Polish energy transformation, with particular emphasis on regional differences in RES investments financed with Union funds. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to assess the contribution of rural communes to the Polish energy transformation process, with a particular focus on regional differences in renewable energy investments financed with European Union funds in the successive seven-year financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The study aimed to answer the following key research questions: how does the level of rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy development compare to that of other commune types? What are the regional differences in rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy? What are the main factors affecting rural communes’ investment activity in regions most involved in the development of renewable energies? The study relies on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy and from the Local Data Bank of the Central Statistical Office. The dataset was processed with the use of descriptive statistics methods and Ward’s method with a view to identifying regional patterns and conditions for the development of renewable energy investments. This study focuses on the investment activities of rural communes in Poland related to RESs financed with European Union funds. The empirical research results highlight rural municipalities’ crucial role in developing RES, emphasizing their high investment activity and significant regional differences. Municipalities from the eastern Polish provinces of Lublin and Podlasie have successfully secured EU funds for RES development. They have implemented numerous projects, primarily related to solar energy.
Energy Transition at the EU Peripheries: Investment of Rural and Urban–Rural Communes in Border Regions of Eastern Poland
Energy transition has become a priority in public policy; however, knowledge of its progress in peripheral, border regions of Eastern Poland—particularly in rural and urban—rural communes—remains sketchy. Research gaps concern both the scale and intensity of investments co-financed from European Union (EU) funds, as well as the effect of their locations in relation to the state border and their position in reference to Functional Urban Areas (FUAs) on the level and character of the discussed investment activity. The primary aim of this study was to assess how the location of a border region and its relation to FUAs diversifies the investment activity and level of investment co-financed from EU funds aimed at developing the low-carbon economy in rural and urban–rural communes of the Eastern Macroregion. The analysis was conducted in two complementary dimensions: (i) a comparative nationwide assessment, covering all macroregions of Poland, within the two most recent, completed EU financial frameworks; i.e., the years 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 and (ii) an in-depth analysis of the Eastern Macroregion, with particular attention to rural and urban–rural communes, their affiliation with Functional Urban Areas (FUAs), and the typology defined by the Delimitation of Rural Areas (DRA). The aim of the conducted analyses was to respond to the research hypothesis assuming that “in the Eastern Macroregion the spatial conditions, i.e., the border location and the location in relation to functional urban areas (within an FUA vs. outside an FUA) significantly diversify the investment activity of rural and urban–rural communes aimed at the low-carbon economy co-financed from EU funds”. Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy and Statistics Poland, which were processed applying methods of descriptive statistics and statistical inference and also using correspondence analysis. The analyses confirmed that in Eastern Poland the process of energy transition moved from the pilot phase to the common implementation of low-carbon measures, to a considerable extent thanks to the activity of rural and urban–rural communes. The results indicate that spatial factors, particularly location in relation to Functional Urban Areas and population density, significantly diversify intensity of investments in rural and urban–rural communes in the spatial context, whereas no such relationship was found for the investment level per capita.
The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Investment Potential and Activity of Rural Municipalities in Poland
The COVID-19 pandemic posed significant challenges for local governments, as economic restrictions reduced their revenues while simultaneously increasing expenditures on healthcare, support for entrepreneurs, and the adaptation of public services. Rural local governments, with lower income potential and greater reliance on external funding, were particularly vulnerable to these difficulties. This may have delayed their investments and slowed their development. The primary aim of this study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the investment potential and activity of rural municipalities in Poland. The empirical research was conducted based on data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland and the Ministry of Finance in Poland, which was processed using basic descriptive statistics and taxonomic methods. The study revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the variation in investment potential and investment activity of rural municipalities, while contributing to their overall increase.
Own revenue potential of small towns in Poland
Purpose – Assessing the level of and differences in own revenue potential of small cities having the status of urban municipalities. The study intended to answer the following research question: do the cities having the status of urban municipalities lag far behind greater towns in terms of own revenue potential, and has the gap between them grown over the years? – Is there a wide diversity in the level of own revenue potential of small towns depending on their level of development and functions? – What are the most important internal determinants affecting the level of own revenue potential of small towns with urban municipality status? Research method – The empirical research was conducted based on secondary data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland, processed using basic descriptive statistics and taxonomic methods. The focus of the study was on small towns (with less than 20 thousand inhabitants) with urban municipality status (116 entities in 2020). The time span of the study was 2007–2020. Results – The potential for own revenue of cities having the status of urban municipalities varies strongly between them, but is on average only slightly smaller than that of other urban municipalities. Also, the fact that it is growing should be viewed as a positive development. While its level is impacted by internal conditions, external ones were the reason why in 2020 it stopped growing as fast as in the previous years. Originality / value / implications / recommendations – Monitoring the level of small cities’ own revenue potential due to their importance (77% of all cities, “rural growth poles”, “local development centres”) is aimed, among other things, at identifying financially disadvantaged units that may require state intervention in accordance with the implementation of the subsidiarity principle.
Does the Level of Living Conditions of the Population Depend on the Place of Residence? – Rural and Urban Perspective of European Union Countries
Droga do kredytu - co osoby młode wiedzą o swojej zdolności kredytowej? (case study województwa wielkopolskiego)
Low-Carbon Rural Areas: How Are Polish Municipalities Financing the Green Future?
The main aim of the research was to assess Polish rural municipalities’ investment activity connected with the development of a low-carbon economy, supported with EU funds in the 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 financial frameworks. The empirical study was based on data from Poland’s Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy, Ministry of Finance, and Statistics Poland, analysed through basic descriptive statistics and a logistic model to identify key factors influencing investment activity. The study showed that the greatest number of agreements on funding were, in fact, signed by rural municipalities in the period under analysis. The predominant measures undertaken during this time were the promotion of renewable energy sources and the improvement in energy efficiency. In the earlier financial framework, low-carbon economy projects in rural areas were more often implemented by municipalities with developing demographic potential, including those characterised by a higher level of enterprise development. In the subsequent financial framework, human capital turned out to be of key importance for the investment activity of rural municipalities. Experience gained from 2007–2013 positively influenced fund absorption in 2014–2020, improving project value, number, and support. The study confirmed that rural municipalities play a vital role in advancing a low-carbon economy, as local actions are key to achieving sustainable development and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
