2023, Szostek, Małgorzata, Szpunar-Krok, Ewa, Ilek, Anna

The impact of fertilization of fly ashes from biomass combustion (BAs) on the changes in the chemical speciation of trace elements (Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cd) in Gleyic Chernozem soil was analyzed in field-experiment conditions, under cultivation of winter oilseed rape plants. The three-year field experiment was carried out in southeastern Poland (50°3′ N, 22°47′ E). The three-stage sequential extraction procedure developed by the Measurements and Testing Program (BCR) was used for the fractionation of trace elements in BAs and soil. The risk assessment code (RAC) coefficient was used to assess potential soil contamination with trace elements from Bas. The total content of Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd in BAs used in the experiment was 470, 311, 29, 78, 38, and 3.7 mg kg−1, respectively. The present study showed that the application of BAs significantly increased the total concentration of Zn and Cu in the surface layer of the Gleyic Chernozem soil, and did not significantly increase the concentration of Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd. Generally, using BAs does not significantly change the chemical speciation of trace elements in soil. Regardless of the applied fertilization, residual fraction (F4) was the most abundant, whereas the exchangeable/extractable (F1) fraction and reducible (F2) fraction were present in the smallest amounts. Due to the low share of exchangeable/extractable fraction (F1), the BAs used in the experiment were characterized by a low RAC coefficient; hence, their use as a soil fertilizer is relatively safe for the environment. The BAs fertilization did not cause significant changes in the content of trace elements in the different parts of the winter oilseed rape plants. Due to the relatively high content of trace elements in fly ashes from biomass combustion, an analysis of the content of individual trace element fractions should be carried out to assess their actual impact on the environment. This can help indicate further actions that should be taken to limit their negative environmental impact.

2023, Siegert, Courtney, Ilek, Anna, Wade, Adam, Schweitzer, Callie

AbstractIn the eastern United States, the use of prescribed fire as a silvicultural technique to manage for desirable upland tree species is increasing in popularity. Bark physical properties such as thickness, density, and porosity have known associations with fire tolerance among species. These physical properties simultaneously influence rainfall interception and canopy storage and thus are of interest across a range of disciplines. Furthermore, while these characteristics are innate to a species, it is unknown whether repeated exposure to fire facilitates physical change in bark structure and whether these changes are consistent among species. To answer these questions, bark samples were collected from mature pine (Pinus taeda L.) and oak (Quercus montana Willd.) trees from sites across the Bankhead National Forest in Alabama, USA under three different burn regimes: 3‐year cycle, 9‐year cycle, and no fire. Samples were analysed in the laboratory for bulk density, porosity, water storage capacity, and hygroscopicity (the amount of atmospheric water vapour absorbed by bark during non‐rainfall conditions). Drying rates of saturated samples under simulated wetting conditions were also assessed. Oak bark had higher bulk density, lower porosity, and dried slower than pine bark. Interestingly, bark from both species had lower bulk density, higher porosity, greater water storage capacity, and dried faster in stands that were burned every 3 years compared to other fire regimes (p < 0.001). In summary, this study demonstrates that prescribed fire regimes in an eastern US forest alter bark structure and thus influence individual tree control on hydrological processes. The increase in bark water storage capacity, coupled with faster bark evaporation times may lead to less water inputs to the forest floor and drier overall conditions. Further investigation of this fire‐bark‐water feedback loop is necessary to understand the extent of these mechanisms controlling landscape‐scale conditions.

2024, Błońska, Ewa, Lasota, Jarosław, Prażuch, Wojciech, Ilek, Anna

2024, Szostek, Małgorzata, Szpunar-Krok, Ewa, Matłok, Natalia, Ilek, Anna, Słowik, Klaudia, Kuboń, Maciej

Ashes from biomass combustion (BAs) are a valuable source of plant nutrients, making them suitable for fertilizing crops. BAs also contain components that directly affect soil environmental conditions, leading to improved growth and development of plants. Their deacidifying properties allow BAs to serve as a substitute for calcium fertilizers. However, they contain substantial amounts of components that can increase soil salinity, which can have negative effects. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of BAs on changes in pH and salinity of haplicluvisol soil under the cultivation of various plant species. The study also analyzed the effects of BAs on the content of total forms of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and sodium (Na) in the soil. The BAs used in the experiment were sourced from a combined heat and power plant that combusts forest and agricultural biomass. These BAs are distributed as a product for fertilizing agricultural land. However, their application is not subjected to further monitoring. The results indicated that the application of different doses of BAs significantly affected the pH of the analyzed soil. Compared to control objects, a significant increase in pH was observed, with these changes dependent on the species of the cultivated plant. Additionally, even the smallest doses of BAs caused an increase in the electrolytic conductivity (EC) of soil solutions, which serves as a measure of soil salinity. Despite the increase in the average EC value, the application of BAs did not alter the salinity class. The use of BAs also significantly influenced other analyzed parameters. An increase in the average content of total forms of Ca, Mg, K, and Na in the soil was observed, along with a higher degree of soil saturation with alkaline cations, compared to the control and the soil condition before the experiment. The changes in the analyzed soil parameters were significantly influenced not only by the different doses of BAs but also by the species of the cultivated plant. The greatest fluctuations in the obtained values were observed in soil under winter rape cultivation, while the smallest fluctuations were noted in soil under spring barley and potato cultivation.

2023, Noren, Benjamin J., Lewis, Nicholas R., Tonello, Kelly Cristina, Ilek, Anna, Van Stan, John T.

Knowledge of the processes and impacts associated with the canopy’s partitioning of rainfall into stemflow (water that drains to the base of tree stems) and throughfall (water that drips through gaps and from canopy surfaces) has expanded in recent years. However, the effect of canopy interactions on the fundamental physical properties of rainwater as it travels through the canopy to the soil, particularly surface tension, remains understudied. To discuss specific hypotheses within this context and their relevance to ecohydrological theory, the surface tension of rainwater samples was examined directly. Over a period of 9 months, open rainwater, throughfall and stemflow samples were collected during 20 storms from 12 study trees located in Secrest Arboretum (about 2.5 km outside Wooster, Ohio). Study trees were selected to highlight a range of canopy characteristics, with each tree being from a unique deciduous species. Surface tension was measured using pendant drop goniometry, and measurements were analyzed for variation across study trees and correlation with event air temperature and rain intensity. In general, surface tension was reduced in throughfall and stemflow compared to measurements made for event rainwater, with median surface tension changes of −0.446 mN m−1 and −0.595 mN m−1 for throughfall and stemflow, respectively. The extent of this reduction varied among study trees (with changes as great as −6.5 to −5.5 mN m−1), and storm event characteristics were directly and indirectly correlated with surface tension changes in select cases. Hypothetically, a number of mechanisms may account for the observed reduction (and variation in this reduction) in surface tension, including differences in tree surface properties, canopy microenvironments, and microbiomes, and each warrant further research. Testing these hypotheses may advance broader ecohydrological theory as surface tension changes will influence wetting, absorption, and solute exchange processes within the canopy which, in turn, may affect related surface processes.

2025, Saiki, Shin‐Taro, Ilek, Anna, Ando, Yuho, Sahashi, Norio, Nanko, Kazuki

ABSTRACTLeaf surface wettability significantly influences rainfall interception and the overall water balance within forest ecosystems. However, the effects of biological factors, particularly fungi, on this critical property have not been extensively documented. In this study, we assessed the impact of Erysiphe castaneigena, a powdery mildew fungus, on the wettability of leaves from Japanese chestnut trees. We compared the wettability of infected and uninfected leaves by measuring the contact angles of water droplets on their surfaces. Our analysis revealed that leaves infected with the powdery mildew fungus displayed significantly higher hydrophobicity compared with uninfected leaves. This increased hydrophobicity correlated with the densification of the mycelium as the fungal coverage of the leaf surface expanded. These findings emphasize the substantial influence of phyllosphere microorganisms such as powdery mildew fungi on leaf wettability. Our results also enhance our understanding of the ecohydrological implications of microbial interactions on leaf surfaces, highlighting the need for further research into how these processes impact broader ecological and hydrological systems.

2023, Szostek, Małgorzata, Matłok, Natalia, Kosowski, Patryk, Ilek, Anna, Balawejder, Maciej

This work aimed to detect changes in trace element chemical speciation in sewage sludge (SS) after the ozonation process. The modified Community Bureau of Reference (BCR) sequential extraction procedure was performed to determine the chemical speciation of trace elements in SS after the ozonation process. To assess potential soil contamination with trace elements from sewage sludge after the ozonation process, the risk assessment code (RAC) coefficient was used. The bioaccumulation factor (BAF) and translocation factor (TF) values were also calculated to characterize the efficiency of trace element accumulation in the studied plant species from soil fertilized with sludges after the ozonation process. Generally, the mean concentration of total trace elements in the SS after the ozonation process was higher, but the differences were statistically significant only in the case of Mn, Cu, Pb, and Cd. The dominant fraction of Fe, Cr, Pb, and Cd was the residual fraction F4, while the extractable/exchangeable fraction F1 was present in the smallest amount. Therefore, in the case of Mn, Zn, and Ni, the ozonation process had a significant impact on the increase in the content of these elements in the F1 fraction. The application of the SS stabilized by ozonation process for maize and wheat fertilization did not significantly affect the bioaccumulation of most of the analyzed metals in aboveground biomass. Higher values of BAF coefficients after the application of ozonated SS were found only in the case of Cu and Ni. In turn, the determined TF coefficients were lower than 1 in most cases. The obtained results showed that the slight change in the concentration of Zn, Mn, and Ni in fraction F1 causes a specific risk of their mobility in the soil environment. It should be noted that due to the variable composition of sewage sludge, an analysis of the content of individual trace elements in chemical fractions should be carried out to assess its actual impact on the environment. This can help to indicate further actions that should be undertaken to limit their negative impact on the environment.

2024, Ilek, Anna, Gąsecka, Monika, Magdziak, Zuzanna, Costas, Saitanis, Siegert, Courtney M.

Background and Aims: Secondary plant metabolites, including organic acids and phenolic compounds, have a significant impact on the properties of organic matter in soil, influencing its structure and function. How the production of these compounds in foliage that falls to the forest floor as litterfall varies across tree age and seasonality are of considerable interest for advancing our understanding of organic matter dynamics. Methods: Monthly, we collected fallen needles of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) across stands of five different age classes (20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 years) for one year and measured the organic acids and phenolic compounds. Results: Seven low-molecular-weight organic acids and thirteen phenolic compounds were detected in the litterfall. No differences were observed across stand age. Significant seasonal differences were detected. Most compounds peaked during litterfall in the growing season. Succinic acid was the most prevalent organic acid in the litterfall, comprising 78% of total organic acids (351.27 ± 34.27 µg g− 1), and was 1.5 to 11.0 times greater in the summer than all other seasons. Sinapic acid was the most prevalent phenolic compound in the litterfall (42.15 µg g− 1), representing 11% of the total phenolic compounds, and was 39.8 times greater in spring and summer compared to autumn and winter. Growing season peaks in needle concentrations were observed for all thirteen phenolic compounds and two organic acids (lactic, succinic). Citric acid exhibited a definitive peak in late winter into early spring. Conclusions: Our results highlight the seasonal dynamics of the composition of secondary plant metabolites in litterfall, which is most different at the onset of the growing season. Fresh inputs of litterfall at this time of emerging biological activity likely have seasonal impacts on soil’s organic matter composition as well.

2021, Ilek, Anna, Van Stan, John T., Morkisz, Karolina, Kucza, Jarosław

As the outermost layer of stems and branches, bark is exposed to the influence of atmospheric conditions, i.e., to changes in the air’s relative humidity and wetting during storms. The bark is involved in water interception by tree canopies and stemflow generation, but bark–water relations are often overlooked in ecohydrological research and insufficiently understood. Relative to other canopy ecohydrological processes, little is known about vertical variation in bark properties and their effect on bark hydrology. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze changes in physical properties (thickness, outer to total bark thickness ratio, density, and porosity) and hydrology (bark absorbability, bark water storage capacity, and hygroscopicity) vertically along stems of Norway spruce [Picea abies (L.) Karst.] and silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) trees. Our null hypotheses were that bark hydrology is constant both with tree height and across measured physical bark properties. We found that bark thickness and the ratio of outer-to-total bark thickness decreased with tree height for both species, and this was accompanied by an increase in the bark water storage capacity. In contrast, the bark’s density, porosity, and hygroscopicity remained relatively constant along stems. These results inform ecohydrological theory on water storage capacity, stemflow initiation, and the connection between the canopy water balance and organisms that colonize bark surfaces.

2024, Ilek, Anna, Płachta, Agnieszka, Siegert, Courtney, Campos, Sergio Dias, Szostek, Małgorzata, Tonello, Kelly Cristina

AbstractIn forest ecosystems, interception of rainwater on foliar and woody surfaces and the subsequent partitioning into stemflow is largely controlled by physical and hydrological properties of bark. Few forest ecohydrology studies have explored the role of bark properties (e.g., thickness, density) on bark water storage capacity and stemflow production. Even fewer have explored how different phases of water (e.g., liquid, vapor) may affect bark through bark swelling properties across the stem and how the degree of swelling affects tradeoffs between bark water storage and stemflow generation. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze changes in a bark swelling index (BSI) vertically along stems of Picea abies (Norway spruce) after exposure to both water vapor and liquid water, as a function of tree age and bark moisture content. We found that tree age influenced BSI and bark moisture content, wherein BSI was ∼ 6.5% lower in older trees (70 years) compared to younger trees (35 and 50 years), and average moisture content was 10.4–13.2% lower. BSI increased when bark was exposed to hygroscopic water vapor and reached maximum swelling after 1 day of water saturation. BSI also increased from the base of the tree to 20–30% of total tree height, beyond which BSI remained relatively stable across all age classes. Enhanced understanding of bark swelling mechanisms as a result of stem position, age, and moisture content and exposure provide stronger foundations for understanding canopy hydrologic partitioning and the fate of rainwater moving through forest canopies.

2023, Szostek, Małgorzata, Szpunar-Krok, Ewa, Jańczak-Pieniążek, Marta, Ilek, Anna

The short-term impact of biomass combustion fly ashes (BAs) fertilization on the spring rape growth, essential and trace elements accumulation in seeds, and selected soil and soil solution properties were analyzed in a pot experiment study. The pot experiment was carried out in the growing season (April–August) during the year 2018. The effect of BAs on the dry matter content in spring rape plants and the relative content of chlorophyll in leaves (SPAD) was analyzed. In addition, the effect of BAs on the accumulation of essential and trace elements in the seeds of this plant was analyzed. The impact of BAs on the basic physicochemical properties of soils was also assessed. Additionally, the solubility of compounds contained in BAs was monitored on the basis of the analysis of the changes in the physicochemical properties of soil solution during the experiment period. The present study demonstrated a positive effect of BAs fertilization on plant growth and development and improvement of soil physicochemical properties. A change has been achieved in the soil reaction class from a slightly acidic (control, NPK) to neutral (D1-D6), with the highest increase in pH induced by the highest ash dose of 3 mg ha−1 (D6). It was shown that BAs contributed to a significant increase in the content of macroelements than trace elements in the analyzed soil. In turn, the accumulation of these elements in plant seeds exhibited an inverse relationship, which was mainly influenced by the soil pH and the content of N, Ca, Mg, K, and Na in the soil, as indicated by the correlation coefficients. The highest contents of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cr, and Ni were detected in the seeds of plants fertilized with BAs at a dose of 2.0 Mg ha−1 (D4), and their respective values were 263, 363, 107, 51, 1835, and 137% higher than in the control. The Ca, Mg, S, and Na compounds introduced with BAs exhibited high solubility, as evidenced by the higher concentration of Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and SO42− ions in the soil solutions and the dynamic changes in pH and EC observed during the experiment. The lowest solubility after the application of BAs was exhibited by N and P. The conducted PCA analysis to a large extent explained the variability between the applied fertilization and the factors analyzed in the experiment. Despite the positive impact of ashes, attention should be paid to the potential risks associated with their use. The use of higher doses of BAs may result in excessive alkalization and salinity of soils and may enhance the accumulation of trace elements in plants. These aspects should therefore be closely monitored, especially in the case of a long-term application of these wastes, in order to avoid serious environmental problems.

2024, Ilek, Anna, Błońska, Ewa, Miszewski, Kamil, Kasztelan, Adrian, Zborowska, Magdalena

Little is known about how the degree of mixing various forest-forming species affects forest floor hydrology. We evaluated the water storage capacity of the resulting litter layer by mixing the litterfall of Scots pine and sessile oak and studying their decomposition time. We prepared 90 artificial samples containing pure pine litter, pure oak litter, and mixed pine–oak litter with varying shares of pine needles. These samples were subjected to 15 months of decomposition in soil. After every three months of decay, some samples were removed from the soil, and their water storage capacity, bulk density, and C:N ratio were evaluated. Our findings indicate that samples with the greatest water storage capacity had a low C:N ratio and a predominant share of oak leaves. Conversely, samples with a high C:N ratio and a predominant share of pine needles had the lowest water storage capacity. After 12 and 15 months of decomposition, the water storage capacity increased by more than 52% compared to the initial water capacity of the samples. The highest increase in water storage capacity (>40%) was observed in samples with a predominant share of oak leaves, while the lowest (approximately 28%) was recorded in samples with 80 and 100% of pine needles. Our findings suggest that introducing mixed-species stands, with deciduous species as the predominant component, can yield several ecological benefits, such as an increased ability to store water in forest floor.

2025, Magdziak, Zuzanna, Gąsecka, Monika, Drzewiecka, Kinga, Ilek, Anna, Rybak, Michał, Proch, Jędrzej, Niedzielski, Przemysław

Sustainable management of soils degraded by heavy metals is a major environmental challenge. The aim of this study was to evaluate the acclimatization ability of the hybrid Populus nigra L. × Populus maximowiczii under variable soil moisture conditions. In a greenhouse experiment, it was shown that both soil moisture level and the presence of metals significantly affected plant growth and metabolism. The hybrid showed high nickel (Ni) accumulation at low and medium soil moisture content (LMC, MMC) (BCF 4.56 and 4.99), while copper (Cu) accumulation was highest at MMC (BCF 5.53). Nickel translocation to aerial parts increased after exposure (TF up to 0.63), while Cu translocation was limited (TF below 0.94). Increased humidity promoted the biosynthesis of low molecular weight organic acids (LMWOAs) in roots, with the highest total content recorded in the Cu treatment under high soil moisture content (HMC) (230 μg g−1 FW). In the stems, the highest levels of sum LMWOAs were found under HMC conditions (6764 μg g−1 FW in the control sample), while among the phenolic acids, the highest content of chlorogenic acid (~144 μg g−1 FW) was determined under LMC conditions under Ni stress, which indicates a strong defense response of the plant. The obtained results emphasize the importance of selecting appropriate water conditions in remediation strategies and indicate that the tested poplar hybrid may be a promising tool in improving the quality of degraded soils.

2025, Błońska, Ewa, Lasota, Jarosław, Prażuch, Wojciech, Ilek, Anna

Abstract Tree species play a crucial role in shaping soil properties, significantly influencing nutrient cycling and ecological dynamics within forest ecosystems. In this comprehensive study, we examined the influence of tree species on soil chemistry especially on C/N/P stoichiometry and enzymatic activities across soil profiles. We analyzed soil samples beneath eight distinct tree species at three vertical horizons of soil: organic (O), humus mineral (A), and mineral enrichment (B) horizons. Our study involved detailed assessment of soil carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus contents, along with the activities of key enzymes: β-glucosidase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase, and phosphatase. The study revealed pronounced vertical stratification in soil properties, significantly influenced by the tree species. General linear models (GLMs) highlighted differences in C: N:P stoichiometry and enzymatic activity across different soil horizons and among tree species. Enzymatic activity was strongly correlated with C, N and P content. The conducted research confirms the distinctiveness of coniferous and deciduous species in terms of C, N and P stoichiometry and the activity of the tested enzymes involved in the C, N and P circulation. These variations are indicative of the intricate interactions between tree species and soil processes. Our findings underscore the role of diversity of trees in modulating soil nutrient dynamics and enzyme-driven processes, which are crucial for understanding soil ecosystem functions and nutrient cycling. This study provides new insights into the role of tree species in shaping the soil environment, offering implications for forest management and conservation strategies. Taking into account the impact of individual tree species covered by the research on the soil, it is worth considering the cultivation of mixed stands.

2025, Ilek, Anna, Tonello, Kelly Cristina

Tree bark plays a crucial role in the distribution of rainfall within forest ecosystems, particularly through its impact on stemflow. To gain a comprehensive understanding of how bark controls stemflow, it is essential to identify all factors affecting bark water storage capacity, as this determines the onset of stemflow during rainfall events. Our study analyzed how the position of bark on the stem and the altitude above sea level impact bulk density, water storage capacity, and the time required for bark saturation. We conducted research on Norway spruce bark collected at four altitudes: 400, 550, 700, and 1150 m asl. Our findings revealed that bark from the 400 m altitude had a bulk density that was approximately 24.5% greater than that from higher altitudes. Additionally, the water absorption time for bark from 1150 m was over 68% longer than that for bark from other altitudes. The longest absorption time (about 6.4 days) was observed in the bottom part of the trees, while the shortest (about 4.4 days) was in the top part of the trees. We also observed that the bark water storage capacity increased from the base to the top of the trees and with increasing altitudes. Specifically, the water storage capacity of bark taken from 400 m was approximately 33% lower than that from 1150 m. These findings highlight the significance of stem height position and altitude as key determinants of bark water storage capacity.