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Optimizing Forest-Biomass-Distribution Logistics from a Multi-Level Perspective - Review
Forest and wood biomass represent a sustainable reservoir of raw materials and energy, offering a viable alternative to fossil fuels. These resources find extensive use in producing bioproducts, including solid wood and wood materials. The judicious exploitation of forest and wood biomass can be pivotal in reducing carbon emissions and securing material and energy independence. The business viability of producing valuable goods from woody biomass hinges on ensuring its sustained availability. This necessitates access to high-quality biomass at a minimal cost, demanding the efficient design of wood-biomass-distribution logistics. Furthermore, it is imperative to give equal weight to social and ecological considerations in shaping the forest- and wood-biomass-distribution logistics, thereby ensuring the sustainable utilization of this renewable raw material source. This article presents research focused on the business optimization of distribution logistics for specific forms of forest biomass used in wood material production. While most studies have primarily concentrated on the business or ecological issues of biomass utilization, this article offers a comprehensive insight by addressing business, ecological, and social facets in assessing and optimizing wood-biomass-distribution logistics. Multi-stakeholder life-cycle-assessment optimization takes into account the reduction of greenhouse gases as an ecological metric, with production costs and capital expenditure forming the business metrics. At the same time, the generation of employment opportunities is commonly regarded as the pivotal social criterion. There remains a necessity for further exploration into the potential social impacts of forest biomass utilization. Additionally, developing enhanced methodologies and decision-support tools for scheduling wood-biomass-distribution logistics that holistically consider business, ecological, and social criteria is an essential ongoing task.
Economic Efficiency of Pine Wood Processing in Furniture Production
The wood industry faces challenges due to rising prices and limited wood availability, putting pressure on material efficiency in wood processing. This justifies the analysis of the relationship between efficiency and economy in pine wood processing. The study aimed to measure the impact of variations in the thickness of logs, changes in the technology of their further processing, and changes in prices of raw materials and products on the material efficiency in the context of large-scale production of furniture elements made of pinewood. The raw material input consisted of three categories of log sizes, from which the specialized purpose lumber was produced. The lumber was then processed into semi-finished furniture elements with three technologies: without detecting natural wood defects, with human detection, and with automatic detection. The study was conducted in Poland from 2020 to 2022. The material efficiencies in every stage of the analyzed wood processing and the cost efficiencies were calculated and analyzed based on the results obtained under real industrial conditions. The main findings are as follows: (1) when comparing the logs in the three tested diameter ranges (14–23 cm, 23–30 cm, and more than 30 cm), it can be observed that the overall material efficiency of sawing is in the range of 70%–85% and increases with the thickness of the log; (2) the share of 38 mm specialized sawn timber in the total amount of sawn timber was 41%–58% and increased with increasing log diameter; (3) the economic efficiency of the technological process is 170%–290%, based on the log size and the technology of further processing employed. The determining factor affecting cost efficiencies is unexpected changes in raw material prices and product demand in 2022. The findings suggest that while improvements in processing technology can boost efficiency, they cannot fully offset the rise in raw wood material prices.
Taxonomy Regulation as a New Instrument for the Sustainable Management of the Forest Environment in Europe
Regulation (EU) 2020/852 of the European Parliament, also known as the Taxonomy Regulation, facilitates environmentally sustainable investments. It is part of the concept of the European Green Deal and a ‘tool’ for financial institutions, enterprises, and investors, facilitating the assessment of the environmental impact of a particular project. The Regulation contains the criteria an activity must meet to be considered environmentally sustainable. The role of the Taxonomy Regulation is to enable the flow of public and private capital towards ecological and sustainable activities. The document does not need to be implemented into the legal order of individual EU member-states, which results in its direct application. The main financial instruments enabling the achievement of the goals of the Taxonomy Regulation may be green bonds and other forms of capital raising by entrepreneurs and forest ownership structures. The assumption of the Regulation is to achieve the principles of sustainable environmental activity when spending funds obtained from private investors. It is an issue of key significance to identify the areas of management and financial accounting in the operational activities of forest enterprises that can be qualified for the Taxonomy Regulation. Forestry activities, including the processes mentioned therein, the objectives of the New EU Forest Strategy, and the LULUCF Regulation, are to play an essential role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The role of forestry in the supply chain in its broad sense is also considered. Forestry and forest management can receive capital for sustainable development due to the threat resulting from exclusions that strengthen the protective function of the forest (the protection of biodiversity). These processes will occur at the expense of production and numerous social functions.
Exploring Chitosan Lactate as a Multifunctional Additive: Enhancing Quality and Extending Shelf Life of Whole Wheat Bread
The shelf life of whole wheat bread (WWB) significantly impacts its freshness and overall quality. This research investigated the impact of chitosan lactate (CL) on various characteristics influencing the shelf life of WWB, including its physical, chemical, textural, antimicrobial, and sensory attributes. These characteristics were evaluated by conducting various experiments such as physical inspection, moisture, impedance, swelling, color, texture, FTIR, microbiological, and sensory analysis. CL with different concentrations was incorporated into WWB formulations: P0.0 (0.0% w/w CL, control), P0.5 (0.5% w/w CL), P1.0 (1.0% w/w CL), P2.0 (2.0% w/w CL), and P3.0 (3.0% w/w CL). The inclusion of CL promoted the Maillard reaction (MR) compared to P0.0. The promotion of MR resulted in the formation of a shinier crust, which increased as the CL content was increased. P0.5 comprised large-sized pores and exhibited increased loaf height. CL-containing WWB formulations showed an increased moisture content and decreased impedance values compared to the control. FTIR analysis of P0.5 demonstrated the enhanced interaction and bonding of water molecules. P0.5 demonstrated optimal textural, colorimetric, and antimicrobial properties compared to other formulations. The sensory attributes of WWBs remain unchanged despite CL addition. In conclusion, P0.5 exhibited optimal characteristics associated with better quality and prolonged shelf life.
The Ways of Forming and the Erosion/Decay/Aging of Bioapatites in the Context of the Reversibility of Apatites
Properties of fiber-gypsum composite formed on the basis of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibers grown in Poland and natural gypsum
: Properties of fiber-gypsum composite formed on the basis of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibers grown in Poland and natural gypsum. The popularity of composites reinforced with natural fibers is constantly growing and therefore, they are a subject of many scientific works as well. An example of interesting concept is the use of hemp fibers to reinforce a gypsum matrix and therefore, presented study was aimed to determine the effect of their content on the properties of resultant composites. Moreover, the influence of setting temperature was also investigated. The scope of the research included determination of properties such as: density, setting time, bending strength, modulus of elasticity and thermal conductivity coefficient. Studies have shown that as the amount introduced fibers increases, the density of manufactured composites decreases. Furthermore, increase in the content of hemp causes a significant extension in setting time of the gypsum matrix. Based on the outcomes of mechanical properties, it was found that the optimal content of fibers is 4% and further increase in their share results in a deterioration of flexural strength characteristics. The increase in a setting temperature leads to thereduction in their bending strength and modulus of elasticity. Composites reinforced with hemp fibers demonstrate significantly improved thermal insulation properties
Heme iron as potential iron fortifier for food application – characterization by material techniques
Abstract The modern food industry requires new analytical methods for high-demand food supplements, personalized diets, or bioactive foods development. One of the main goals of the food industry is to discover new ways of food fortification. This applies to food products or supplements for human and animal diets. In our research, we focused on the solid particles of AproTHEM (dried porcine hemoglobin), which is approved for animal feeding and as a meat product additive, and AproFER 1000 (heme iron polypeptides), which is still being investigated. The study showed the possible application of advanced techniques for the examination of iron-based food additives. We evaluated selected techniques for particle size and morphology examination such as laser diffraction, optical microscopy, as well as scanning electron microscopy, and briefly discussed their usefulness compared with other techniques. On the basis of our results, we proposed a path of microscopic analysis for the study of material homogeneity. The structure of heme iron was evaluated by X-ray diffraction, FT-IR, and Raman spectroscopy supported with thermal behavior analysis (differential scanning calorimeter). Furthermore, a portable colorimeter was applied for L*a*b* color analysis. Our study proved that for new food product development, particle size analysis as well as typically used advanced materials techniques can be successfully applied.
Timber from Historical Foundation Piles Made of Oak Wood (Quercus robur L.)
Oak wood is a popular construction material in Europe. In the course of its service life, this wood is subject to structural changes resulting from the environmental conditions to which it is exposed, in addition to the effects of aging. Samples of naturally occurring historic European oak (Quercus robur L.) were obtained from foundation piles that were utilized to reinforce the riverbanks in Poland, the Vistula River basin, dating to the 2nd century, as well as from a 14th-century settlement on the river in Slupsk. Reference wood was also obtained from contemporary harvesting operations in the vicinity of Slupsk, Poland. The presence of structural changes resulting from partial wood degradation was confirmed through the utilization of FTIR spectroscopy analysis, SEM with BSD microscopy, and chromatic parameters. The differences in the color of historic and reference wood were significant (based on Kruskal–Wallis test = 46.38, where p < 0.001). The results of chemical analysis showed an increase in the proportion of lignin and a decrease in carbohydrate components for the old wood. A higher degree of change in lignin content was observed in historic wood (32–38%) compared to the fresh wood sample (25%). Our study showed that the collected data can be applied to the preparation database of heritage wood materials.
Verification of the Assumptions of the Polish State Forest Policy in the Context of the New EU Forest Strategy 2030
Despite the lack of legal tools to interfere in the forest policy of the member states, the European Union has initiated the New EU Forest Strategy 2030 (NFS), which emphasizes the protective functions of forests, modifying the interpretation of sustainable forest management. The aim of the study was to compare the State Forest Policy (SFP) in Poland with the assumptions of the New UE Forest Strategy 2030, identifying challenges for Polish forestry. The compliance of both documents was verified, taking into account their objectives, implementation methods, and differences. The analysis showed the coherence of the direction of both policies, while the differences in the methods of achieving the objectives result from divergent interpretations of the concept of sustainable forest management. It is necessary to develop a new definition taking into account the conditions of EU countries and to develop a system of measures enabling the comparison of the degree of implementation of this goal. Previous EU strategies had minimal impact on national legal systems. Diverse concepts of forest management in EU countries make it difficult to implement a common long-term strategy, giving subsequent documents a general character. NFS is a theoretical document presenting a vision of forests from the perspective of EU policy, and SFP serves as a historical document that can be a reference point for modifying assumptions based on contemporary realities. Creating normative acts without taking into account contemporary conditions may be contrary to the direction of development of forestry in Europe. A bottom-up approach, based on consensus of member states, to creating a coherent forest policy at the EU level is more justified.
Contribution to Knowledge on Bioapatites: Does Mg Level Reflect the Organic Matter and Water Contents of Enamel?
The matter constituting the enamels of four types of organisms was studied. The variability of the ions was presented in molar units. It was proven that the changes in water contents of the enamel are significantly positively related to changes in Mg; inversely, there is also a strong connection with changes in Ca and P, the main components of bioapatite. The variability in the organic matter has the same strong and positive characteristics and is also coupled with changes in Mg contents. Amelogenins in organic matter, which synthesize enamel rods, likely have a role in adjusting the amount of Mg, thus establishing the amount of organic matter and water in the whole enamel; this adjustment occurs through an unknown mechanism. Ca, P, Mg, and Cl ions, as well as organic matter and water, participate in the main circulation cycle of bioapatites. The selection of variations in the composition of bioapatite occurs only along particular trajectories, where the energy of transformation linearly depends on the following factors: changes in the crystallographic d parameter; the increase in the volume, V, of the crystallographic cell; the momentum transfer, which is indirectly expressed by ΔsinΘ value. To our knowledge, these findings are novel in the literature. The obtained results indicate the different chemical and crystallographic affinities of the enamels of selected animals to the human ones. This is essential when animal bioapatites are transformed into dentistic or medical substitutes for the hard tissues. Moreover, the role of Mg is shown to control the amount of water in the apatite and in detecting organic matter in the enamels.
Fibre-Reinforced Polymers and Steel for the Reinforcement of Wooden Elements - Experimental and Numerical Analysis
These elements are innovative and of interest to many researchers for the reinforcement of wooden elements. For the reinforced beam elements, the effect of the reinforcement factor, FRP and steel elastic modulus or FRP and steel arrangement of the reinforcement on the performance of the flexural elements was determined, followed by reading the load-displacement diagram of the reinforced beam elements. The finite element model was then developed and verified with the experimental results, which was mainly related to the fact that the general theory took into account the typical tensile failure mode, which can be used to predict the flexural strength of reinforced timber beams. From the tests, it was determined that reinforced timber beam elements had relatively ductile flexural strengths up to brittle tension for unreinforced elements. As for the reinforcements of FRP, the highest increase in load-bearing capacity was for carbon mats at 52.47%, with a reinforcement grade of 0.43%, while the lowest was for glass mats at 16.62% with a reinforcement grade of 0.22%. Basalt bars achieved the highest stiffness, followed by glass mats. Taking into account all the reinforcements used, the highest stiffness was demonstrated by the tests of the effectiveness of the reinforcement using 3 mm thick steel plates. For this configuration with a reinforcement percentage of 10%, this increase in load capacity was 79.48% and stiffness was 31.08%. The difference between the experimental and numerical results was within 3.62–27.36%, respectively.
Qualitative and Strength Analysis of Pine (Pinus Sylvestris L.) Wood Materials - Study of Pallet Elements
The manufacture of packaging products requires determining the strength requirements of the components that make up the structural elements of pallets, crates and other packaging. Wood, as a renewable material, is the basic raw material for manufacturing wooden pallets. The premise of the research is that the strength of pallets is derived from the characteristics of the components of the subassemblies. Strength tests of lumber were carried out, which determine the evaluation of the suitability of sawn materials. Verification of raw material properties determines the adaptation of individual assemblies to static and dynamic force loads. Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) lumber was verified, taking into account the origin of the cross-sectional area and the presence of anatomical structure features. The results of the study confirm the influence of wood origin on the suitability of pine wood for wood packaging. The influence of a certain origin from the log can translate into changes in strength properties. It was found that wood density is not a critical parameter for evaluating the strength of lumber and product. Tests of separated structural lumber for wood packaging indicate significant differences in the condition of the wood and the magnitude of the strength parameter.
Regional diversity of selected wood by-products supply as an energy feedstock - the case of Poland
Cost of Regeneration of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Crops in National Forests
Silvicultural processes are an essential issue of rational forest management. Both man-made (artificial) and natural restoration methods are used in European forestry. A study of the cost drivers of forest restoration from the early stages of land clearing to cultivation was conducted for Scots pine tracts in a coniferous forest habitat. The cost data were tested for homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test) and normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) using a significance level of α = 0.05. The research indicated that the cost of artificial restoration (planting) of a pine forest is about 30% higher than the cost of natural restoration. The research also indicated that the main cost driver (about 35%) of the artificial restoration process was seedlings and planting costs. Further, the viability of supplementing natural planting with artificial planting was confirmed.
The Influence of Hemp Fibers (Cannabis sativa L.) on the Mechanical Properties of Fiber–Gypsum Boards Reinforcing the Gypsum Matrix
The modern construction industry is looking for new ecological materials (available, cheap, recyclable) that can successfully replace materials that are not environmentally friendly. Fibers of natural origin are materials that can improve the properties of gypsum composites. This is an important issue because synthetic fibers (hardly biodegradable—glass or polypropylene fibers) are commonly used to reinforce gypsum boards. Increasing the state of knowledge regarding the possibility of replacing synthetic fibers with natural fibers is another step towards creating more environmentally friendly building materials and determining their characteristics. This paper investigates the possibility of manufacturing fiber–gypsum composites based on natural gypsum (building gypsum) and hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) fibers grown in Poland. The effect of introducing hemp fibers of different lengths and with varying proportions of mass (mass of gypsum to mass of fibers) into the gypsum matrix was investigated. The experimental data obtained indicate that adding hemp fibers to the gypsum matrix increases the static bending strength of the composites manufactured. The highest mechanical strength, at 4.19 N/mm2, was observed in fiber–gypsum composites with 4% hemp fiber content at 50 mm in length. A similar trend of increased strength was observed in longitudinal tension. Again, the composite variant with 4% fiber content within the gypsum matrix had the highest mechanical strength. Manufacturing fibers–gypsum composites with more than 4% hemp fiber content negatively affected the composites’ strength. Mixing long (50 mm) hemp fibers with the gypsum matrix is technologically problematic, but tests have shown a positive effect on the mechanical properties of the refined composites. The article indicates the length and quantity limitations of hemp fibers on the basis of which fiber–gypsum composites were produced.
