2025, Standar, Aldona

Due to the increasing climate risk manifested in various natural disasters, public entities, including local government units, are required to incur expenditures related to mitigating their impacts. The aim of this study is to assess the scale and differentiation of disaster recovery expenditures by local government units in Poland between 2008 and 2024, in the context of growing climate risk as well as financial and spatial conditions. Data for the analysis were obtained from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland (GUS) and the Institute of Environmental Protection – National Research Institute (IOŚ-PIB), and processed using selected statistical measures, including the median, quartile coefficient of variation, and Pearson’s linear correlation coefficient. The results indicate that problems related to the occurrence of natural disasters in Poland are intensifying and, according to forecasts, are expected to worsen further. Local government expenditures for this purpose are highly diversified and strongly episodic, reflecting specific regional natural and socio-economic conditions. The largest expenditures were recorded in the transport and communication sectors. The correlation analysis demonstrates that municipal spending on disaster recovery is significantly related to the risk of certain natural hazards occurring in the future. The findings highlight the need for flexible financing mechanisms and emphasize the complementary roles of different levels of local government in disaster risk management.

2024, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona

   Aim: The main objective of the paper is to evaluate the scale, scope, and significance of investments in renew­able energy sources by cities in Poland, which were co-financed from EU funds. This assessment will focus on the last two multiannual financial frameworks, namely for the years 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. Methods: Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the database of the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the Ministry of Finance. When investigating the invest­ment activity of towns and cities related to renewable energy sources, basic descriptive statistics methods were applied. Logistic regression was used to identify the primary socio-economic, financial, and environmental conditions. Results: In the analyzed period, the role of towns and cities in the realization of renewable energy projects increased, although it is still relatively limited compared to other types of administrative communes. In the multiannual financial framework for 2007–2013, less than one in ten cities executed at least one project, while in the years 2014–2020, more than one in four cities realized at least one project related to the develop­ment of renewable energy sources supported by EU funds. The disparity in activity between towns and cities on a regional scale was huge. These investments were more often realized by towns and cities with a lower level of development, serving tourist functions, and experienced in carrying out such investments. Their lower investment activity was influenced by their level of indebtedness. Conclusions: So far, one of the main drivers behind the development of renewable energy in urban areas has been the ecological aspect, particularly the improvement of air quality. However, there is now a growing recognition of the importance of energy security.

2024, Standar, Aldona, Trestini, Samuele

The main objective of the research was to assess the risk management system and the agricultural insurance market in Italy. The subject of the study was risk management instruments and insurance products aimed at farmers. The source material primarily came from reports of institutions involved in the insurance system, such as ISMEA. The data were processed using selected descriptive statistical methods. The most important areas of the risk management system in Italy were compared to those in Poland. The research demonstrated that Italian agriculture is exposed to significant natural risks. The risk management system and insurance market are much more developed in Italy than in Poland, despite agriculture playing an important and similar role in both countries. The Italian system includes both traditional and modern risk management instruments, such as IST and mutual funds. Among EU countries, Italy allocates the largest funds under the Common Agricultural Policy to risk management instruments. The demand for the analyzed insurance products is highly regionally differentiated, with farmers in the north much more frequently using insurance. The main categories of insured crops are vineyards, fruits, and cereals, while in terms of livestock production, cattle, pigs, and eggs are the primary insured categories. Italy can serve as an example for Poland and many other countries on how to build a risk management system.

2026, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona

Gminy odgrywają istotną rolę w transformacji energetycznej, realizując inwestycje wspierające rozwój gospodarki niskoemisyjnej. Ich aktywność w tym zakresie cechuje się jednak zróżnicowaniem przestrzennym, m.in. ze względu na bliskość dużych miast. Głównym celem badań była ocena zależności między funkcjonalnym powiązaniem gmin wiejskich i miejsko-wiejskich z większymi ośrodkami miejskimi a poziomem inwestycji w gospodarkę niskoemisyjną, współfinansowanych ze środków Unii Europejskiej w latach 2007–2013 oraz 2014–2020. Badania empiryczne przeprowadzono w celu weryfikacji hipotezy zakładającej, że „gminy funkcjonalnie powiązane z dużymi ośrodkami miejskimi (położone w granicach FUA) wykazują wyższy poziom inwestycji w rozwój gospodarki niskoemisyjnej niż gminy znajdujące się poza tymi obszarami”. Wyniki wskazują na wzrost analizowanej aktywności inwestycyjnej, szczególnie w gminach aglomeracyjnych o niskiej gęstości zaludnienia. Hipoteza badawcza została częściowo potwierdzona – powiązania z miastami sprzyjają wyższym inwestycjom w gospodarkę niskoemisyjną w ujęciu przestrzennym, jednak nie zawsze przekładają się na większe nakłady w przeliczeniu na mieszkańca.

2023, Horodyński, Mateusz, Standar, Aldona

2022, Standar, Aldona, Kozera, Agnieszka, Jabkowski, Dawid

The main objective of the article is to evaluate the investment activity of large cities in Poland in the area of developing a low-carbon economy in 2014–2020, co-financed by European Union funds. This article poses several research questions, namely: Do large cities with environmental problems actively obtain EU funding to develop a low-carbon economy? What are the main socio-economic and environmental determinants of the level of the EU funding absorption among large cities in the research area? The empirical research was conducted on the basis of the data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, which is responsible for the implementation of cohesion policy funds and from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland. Under the 2014–2020 perspective, 223 such projects have been implemented for a total of PLN 21 billion (EUR 4.74 billion). The projects focused on: transportation, electricity, gaseous fuels, steam, hot water and air for air conditioning systems, and environmental and climate change activities. In terms of both the number and the value of EU funds spent, great variation has been observed. Analysis of the correlation relationships showed a highly positive correlation between selected indicators of investment activity in the field of low-carbon economy co-financed by EU funds (especially taking into account the value of investments per area) and socio-economic indicators of Polish metropolises. Metropolises with high demographic, economic, and financial potential have proven to be more effective beneficiaries. Interestingly, no correlation was found between investment activity in the low-carbon economy and the level of environment pollution in large cities. This means that, unfortunately, pro-environmental activities depend on the state of finances of the cities, and not necessarily on the actual needs, even taking into account the fact that the EU covers a large proportion of the costs.

2023, Standar, Aldona, Zielińska, Joanna

The main purpose of the study was to evaluate selected determinants of life insurance purchase. The subjects of the study were adult individuals, while the subjects were life insurance. The source of data was primarily primary material obtained in 2022-2023 through a questionnaire survey. (104 responses were received). Data were processed using ꭓ2 statistical tests and Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric analysis of variance. Cross-tabulation included analysis of responses by gender, education, place, and monthly net income per person in the household. The mentioned determinants differentiated the responses in a statistically significant way. The results proved that as many as 81% of respondents had one insurance policy. The number of individual insurance policies only slightly exceeded the group form of insurance. Importantly, among the insured there were both old customers (insurance for more than 5 years) and new customers (1 year or up to 1 year). Respondents spend relatively low amounts on premiums but are satisfied with this protection. Factors influencing the purchase of these insurances were the desire to protect relatives in case of death, a general sense of security, the fact of having protection itself, and support in case of illness or invalidity.

2024, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona, Stanisławska, Joanna, Rosa, Anna

Although energy transformation is a widely discussed topic, there is a dearth of research on the role of rural communes in implementing that concept in Poland, a country where rural areas account for more than 90% of the total landmass. Most research projects are focused on larger local government units, such as cities, whereas rural communes’ role in the development of local energy policies and impact on the development of renewable energy sources (RESs) is often disregarded. Therefore, this study extends the existing literature resources with a view to bridging that gap by assessing rural communes’ investment activity in the context of the Polish energy transformation, with particular emphasis on regional differences in RES investments financed with Union funds. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to assess the contribution of rural communes to the Polish energy transformation process, with a particular focus on regional differences in renewable energy investments financed with European Union funds in the successive seven-year financial perspectives 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. The study aimed to answer the following key research questions: how does the level of rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy development compare to that of other commune types? What are the regional differences in rural communes’ investment activities related to renewable energy? What are the main factors affecting rural communes’ investment activity in regions most involved in the development of renewable energies? The study relies on data from the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy and from the Local Data Bank of the Central Statistical Office. The dataset was processed with the use of descriptive statistics methods and Ward’s method with a view to identifying regional patterns and conditions for the development of renewable energy investments. This study focuses on the investment activities of rural communes in Poland related to RESs financed with European Union funds. The empirical research results highlight rural municipalities’ crucial role in developing RES, emphasizing their high investment activity and significant regional differences. Municipalities from the eastern Polish provinces of Lublin and Podlasie have successfully secured EU funds for RES development. They have implemented numerous projects, primarily related to solar energy.

2022, Kozera, Agnieszka, Satoła, Łukasz, Standar, Aldona, Dworakowska-Raj, Małgorzata

2025, Standar, Aldona, Kozera, Agnieszka, Smutka, Luboš

The COVID-19 pandemic posed significant challenges for local governments, as economic restrictions reduced their revenues while simultaneously increasing expenditures on healthcare, support for entrepreneurs, and the adaptation of public services. Rural local governments, with lower income potential and greater reliance on external funding, were particularly vulnerable to these difficulties. This may have delayed their investments and slowed their development. The primary aim of this study was to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the investment potential and activity of rural municipalities in Poland. The empirical research was conducted based on data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland and the Ministry of Finance in Poland, which was processed using basic descriptive statistics and taxonomic methods. The study revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic influenced the variation in investment potential and investment activity of rural municipalities, while contributing to their overall increase.

2025, Standar, Aldona, Kozera, Agnieszka, Satoła, Łukasz

2025, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona

2023, Standar, Aldona, Kozera, Agnieszka

Purpose – Assessing the level of and differences in own revenue potential of small cities having the status of urban municipalities. The study intended to answer the following research question: do the cities having the status of urban municipalities lag far behind greater towns in terms of own revenue potential, and has the gap between them grown over the years? – Is there a wide diversity in the level of own revenue potential of small towns depending on their level of development and functions? – What are the most important internal determinants affecting the level of own revenue potential of small towns with urban municipality status? Research method – The empirical research was conducted based on secondary data from the Local Data Bank of Statistics Poland, processed using basic descriptive statistics and taxonomic methods. The focus of the study was on small towns (with less than 20 thousand inhabitants) with urban municipality status (116 entities in 2020). The time span of the study was 2007–2020. Results – The potential for own revenue of cities having the status of urban municipalities varies strongly between them, but is on average only slightly smaller than that of other urban municipalities. Also, the fact that it is growing should be viewed as a positive development. While its level is impacted by internal conditions, external ones were the reason why in 2020 it stopped growing as fast as in the previous years. Originality / value / implications / recommendations – Monitoring the level of small cities’ own revenue potential due to their importance (77% of all cities, “rural growth poles”, “local development centres”) is aimed, among other things, at identifying financially disadvantaged units that may require state intervention in accordance with the implementation of the subsidiarity principle.

2024, Genstwa-Namysł, Natalia, Standar, Aldona, Hadyński, Jakub

Głównym celem badań jest identyfikacja i ocena kierunków oddziaływania rozwoju gospodarczego regionów Polski na zmiany emisji dwutlenku węgla oraz wskazanie gospodarczych determinant tych zmian. Jako zmienną objaśnianą w pracy przyjęto poziom emisji CO2, który odpowiada za ok. 82% wszystkich emisji gazów cieplarnianych w Polsce. Badania zrealizowano w kontekście koncepcji środowiskowej krzywej Kuznetsa, z której wynika, że wraz z rozwojem gospodarczym poziom degradacji środowiska rośnie. Trend ten zmienia się jednak po osiągnięciu pewnego poziomu rozwoju, który w literaturze nazywa się punktem zwrotnym. Realizacja celu głównego przebiegała etapowo i obejmowała między innymi analizę literatury, charakterystykę poziomu rozwoju gospodarczego regionów Polski, porównanie poziomu rozwoju poszczególnych województw, oszacowanie emisji gazów cieplarnianych na poziomie regionalnym oraz weryfikację zależności gospodarczo-środowiskowych za pomocą analizy regresji i regresji panelowej. Skonstruowano również syntetyczny miernik rozwoju regionalnego oraz zestawiono poziom rozwoju z poziomem emisji CO2. Z badań wynika, że zarówno wzrost, jak i rozwój gospodarczy determinuje zmiany emisji CO2 na poziomie regionalnym. W zależności od poziomu rozwoju gospodarczego kierunek zmian emisji w regionach jest jednak różny. Z badań wynika, że związek pomiędzy wzrostem gospodarczym a emisją CO2 jest analogiczny do założeń koncepcji środowiskowej krzywej Kuznetsa.

2023, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona, Genstwa, Natalia

The primary aim of this study was to assess the investment activity of basic local government units in the development of renewable energy sources co-financed by EU funds depending on CO2 emissions and other socio-economic conditions in terms of regions of Poland in the years 2007–2020. Empirical studies aimed at the verification of the research hypothesis that “the greatest investment activity in local projects co-financed from EU funds related to the development of renewable energy sources is observed for local government units in regions with highest CO2 emissions”. Empirical studies were conducted based on data from the Ministry of Investment and Economic Development in Poland, the Local Data Bank, and the National Centre for Emissions Management. Thus, the conducted analyses provide both cognitive and applicatory values for the establishment of an appropriate energy transition policy in individual regions of Poland, which may be implemented by local government authorities within the current financial framework. Data concerning CO2 emissions at the regional level were estimated by applying the original disaggregation method as modified by the authors, which made it possible to fill the research gap resulting from the lack of data on emissions at the regional level. In order to show the regional diversification in investment activity of local government units in terms of renewable energy sources, its multi-faceted analysis was conducted by applying the Ward method. Clusters of regions with similar investment activity of local government units were described based on characteristics included in the typological classification (so-called active characteristics) and selected indexes showing CO2 emission levels, as well as selected socio-economic indexes (so-called passive characteristics). Based on the empirical studies, the research hypothesis presented in this paper was negatively verified. Considering both multiannual financial frameworks, the EU financial support for the development of renewable energy sources was used primarily by local government units of a predominantly agricultural character, and less advanced in terms of their development but exhibiting conditions conducive to renewable energy development.

2024, Kozera, Agnieszka, Satoła, Łukasz, Standar, Aldona

2025, Standar, Aldona, Genstwa-Namysł, Natalia, Kozera, Agnieszka

2024, Kozera, Agnieszka, Standar, Aldona, Stanisławska, Joanna Maria, Rosa, Anna

The main aim of the research was to assess Polish rural municipalities’ investment activity connected with the development of a low-carbon economy, supported with EU funds in the 2007–2013 and 2014–2020 financial frameworks. The empirical study was based on data from Poland’s Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy, Ministry of Finance, and Statistics Poland, analysed through basic descriptive statistics and a logistic model to identify key factors influencing investment activity. The study showed that the greatest number of agreements on funding were, in fact, signed by rural municipalities in the period under analysis. The predominant measures undertaken during this time were the promotion of renewable energy sources and the improvement in energy efficiency. In the earlier financial framework, low-carbon economy projects in rural areas were more often implemented by municipalities with developing demographic potential, including those characterised by a higher level of enterprise development. In the subsequent financial framework, human capital turned out to be of key importance for the investment activity of rural municipalities. Experience gained from 2007–2013 positively influenced fund absorption in 2014–2020, improving project value, number, and support. The study confirmed that rural municipalities play a vital role in advancing a low-carbon economy, as local actions are key to achieving sustainable development and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.